What Is The Party Makeup Of The United States Senate?

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Party leaders of the U.S. Business firm of Representatives

Party leaders and whips of the United States House of Representatives, also known as flooring leaders, are elected by their corresponding parties in a closed-door caucus by underground election.^[i] With the Democrats holding a majority of seats and the Republicans holding a minority, the current leaders are Majority Leader Steny Hoyer of Maryland, Bulk Whip Jim Clyburn of S Carolina, Minority Leader Kevin McCarthy of California, and Minority Whip Steve Scalise of Louisiana.

Unlike the Senate Majority Leader, the House Bulk Leader is the 2d highest-ranking member of his or her political party's House caucus, behind the Speaker of the House.^[ii] The Bulk Leader'southward actual duties and prominence vary depending on the Speaker'southward power and style. Typically, the Speaker does non participate in debate and rarely votes on the floor.^{[ commendation needed ]} In some cases, Majority Leaders have been more influential than the Speaker; notably, Tom Filibuster was more prominent than Speaker Dennis Hastert.^{[ citation needed ]} In addition, Speaker Newt Gingrich delegated to Dick Armey an unprecedented level of authorisation over scheduling legislation on the House floor.^[three]

The current Minority Leader, Kevin McCarthy, serves every bit floor leader of the opposition party. Unlike the Bulk Leader, the Minority Leader is on the ballot for Speaker of the House during the convening of the Congress.^{[ citation needed ]} If the Minority Leader'due south party takes command of the House, and the party officers are all reelected to their seats, the Minority Leader is usually the party's acme choice for Speaker for the adjacent Congress, while the Minority Whip is typically in line to get Bulk Leader. The Minority Leader usually meets with the Majority Leader and the Speaker to hash out agreements on controversial issues.^{[ citation needed ]}

The Speaker, Majority Leader, Minority Leader, Majority Whip and Minority Whip all receive special function suites in the United States Capitol.^{[ citation needed ]}

Selection [edit]

The floor leaders and whips of each party are elected by their respective parties in a closed-door conclave by underground ballot.^[four] The Speaker-presumptive is assumed to be the incoming Speaker, merely they have not been formally selected to be nominated for Speaker by the majority political party's caucus. After this period, the Speaker-designate is also chosen in a closed-door session by the largest caucus although they are formally installed in their position by a public vote when Congress reconvenes.^[one]

Like the Speaker of the Firm, the Minority Leaders are typically experienced lawmakers when they win election to this position. When Nancy Pelosi, D-CA, became Minority Leader in the 108th Congress, she had served in the Firm nearly twenty years and had served every bit minority whip in the 107th Congress. When her predecessor, Dick Gephardt, D-MO, became minority leader in the 104th House, he had been in the Firm for almost twenty years, had served as chairman of the Democratic Conclave for four years, had been a 1988 presidential candidate, and had been majority leader from June 1989 until Republicans captured control of the Business firm in the November 1994 elections. Gephardt'due south predecessor in the minority leadership position was Robert Michel, R-IL, who became GOP Leader in 1981 later on spending 24 years in the House. Michel'south predecessor, Republican John Rhodes of Arizona, was elected Minority Leader in 1973 after twenty years of House service.

By contrast, party leaders of the U.s.a. Senate have frequently ascended to their position despite relatively few years of experience in that chamber,^{[ commendation needed ]} such as Lyndon B. Johnson, William F. Knowland, Tom Daschle, and Neb Frist. Former House Majority Leader Eric Cantor too had a comparatively quick rise to the mail service and was the youngest House Majority Leader in American history.^{[ citation needed ]}

Majority Leader [edit]

The House Majority Leader's duties vary, depending upon the political makeup of the majority caucus. In several recent sessions of Congress, with the notable exception of the Pelosi speakership, the Majority Leader has been primarily responsible for scheduling the House floor'due south legislative calendar and direct direction for all House committees.^{[ citation needed ]}

One statutory duty, per 19 United states of americaC. § 2191(c)(one), stipulates that an implementing bill submitted by the President of the United States for a fast-rails negotiating authority (trade promotion authorization) trade agreement must exist introduced (by request) in the House by the Majority Leader of the Firm.^{[ citation needed ]}

History [edit]

Earlier 1899, the majority party floor leader had traditionally been the Chairman of the Firm Ways and Means Committee, the most powerful commission in the Business firm, as it generates the Bills of Revenue specified in the Constitution as the House's unique power.^[v] Nonetheless, this designation (begun nether Speaker Henry Dirt during the 12th United states of america Congress) was informal, and later 1865, alternated between the Means and Means Committee Chair and the House Appropriations Committee Chair subsequently the latter committee was separate from the former.^[6] By at least 1850, the Senate and House Republican Conferences and the Senate and Firm Democratic Caucuses began naming chairs (although briefing and caucus chairs carried very picayune authority).^[7]

The office of Bulk Leader was created in 1899 and showtime occupied past Sereno Payne.^[8] Speaker David B. Henderson created the position to found a party leader on the Business firm floor separate from the Speaker, equally the part of Speaker had become more prominent and the size of the House had grown from 105 at the beginning of the century to 356.^{[ citation needed ]}

Starting with Republican Nicholas Longworth in 1925 and continuing until 1995, all bulk leaders have directly ascended to the Speakership after the incumbent surrenders the position. The merely exceptions during this flow were Charles A. Halleck, who served equally Majority Leader from 1947–1949, ultimately did not get Speaker considering his party lost the Firm in the 1948 House election, and served as Majority Leader in 1953–1955, ultimately did not become Speaker because his political party lost control over the House after the 1954 Business firm Election and would not regain the House until 1994 (Halleck had been expressionless for years at this betoken); Hale Boggs, who served as Majority Leader from 1971–1973, died in a plane crash; and Dick Gephardt, who served as Majority Leader from 1989–1995, descended to Minority Leader since his party lost control in the 1994 midterm elections.

Since 1995, the but Majority Leader to go Speaker is John Boehner, though indirectly as his party lost control in the 2006 midterms elections. He after served as Republican House leader and Minority Leader from 2007 to 2011 and so was elected Speaker when the House reconvened in 2011. In 1998, when Speaker Newt Gingrich announced his resignation, neither Majority Leader Dick Armey nor Majority Whip Tom DeLay contested the Speakership, which eventually went to Master Deputy Whip Dennis Hastert.

Traditionally, the Speaker is viewed equally the leader of the majority party in the House, with the Majority Leader equally second-in-command. For example, when the Republicans gained the majority in the House after the 2010 elections, Boehner ascended to the Speakership while Eric Cantor succeeded Boehner as Majority Leader. Cantor was understood to be the second-ranking Republican in the House since Boehner was the indisputable leader of the House Republicans. All the same, there have been some exceptions. The about recent exception to this dominion came when Majority Leader Tom DeLay was considered more prominent than Speaker Dennis Hastert from 2003 to 2006.^[ix]

In contrast, the Minority Leader is the undisputed leader of the minority party. For example, when the Republicans lost their majority in the 2018 elections, McCarthy was elected as Minority Leader and hence replaced Ryan as the highest-ranking House Republican.

When the Presidency and both Houses of Congress are controlled by 1 party, the Speaker normally takes a low contour and defers to the President.^{[ citation needed ]} For that situation, the Business firm Minority Leader can play the role of a de facto "leader of the opposition", ofttimes more so than the Senate Minority Leader, owing to the more partisan nature of the House and the greater role of leadership.

When the Bulk Leader'due south party loses control of the Firm, and if the Speaker and Bulk Leader both remain in the leadership hierarchy, convention suggests that they would become the Minority Leader and Minority Whip, respectively. As the minority party has one less leadership position after losing the speaker'south chair, there may be a competition for the remaining leadership positions. Nancy Pelosi is the most recent case of an outgoing Speaker seeking the Minority Leader mail to retain the House party leadership, as the Democrats lost command of the House in the 2010 elections. She ran successfully for Minority Leader in the 112th Congress.^{[x] [11]}

In 2014, Eric Cantor became the first House Majority Leader to lose a master election. Post-obit his primary defeat, Cantor appear his resignation as Bulk Leader, effective July 31, 2014,^{[12] [13] [14] [xv] [xvi] [17]} and he afterwards resigned his seat in Congress.^[18]

Minority Leader [edit]

Responsibilities [edit]

From an institutional perspective, the rules of the Firm assign a number of specific responsibilities to the minority leader. For case, Dominion XII, clause 6, grant the minority leader (or their designee) the right to offer a movement to recommit with instructions; Rule II, clause 6, states the Inspector General shall be appointed by joint recommendation of the Speaker, majority leader, and minority leader; and Dominion XV, clause 6, provides that the Speaker, later consultation with the minority leader, may place legislation on the Corrections Calendar. The minority leader as well has other institutional duties, such equally appointing individuals to sure federal entities.

From a political party perspective, the minority leader has a broad range of partisan assignments, all geared toward retaking bulk control of the House. Five principal party activities direct the work of the minority leader.

1. The minority leader provides campaign assistance to party incumbents and challengers.
2. The minority leader devises strategies, in consultation with other partisan colleagues, that advance party objectives. For example, by stalling activity on the bulk party's agenda, the minority leader may exist able to launch a entrada against a "do-nada Congress."
3. The minority leader works to promote and publicize the political party'south agenda.
4. The minority leader, if their political party controls the White House, confers regularly with the President and the President'southward aides nearly issues before Congress, the Administration's agenda, and political events generally.
5. The minority leader strives to promote party harmony and then as to maximize the chances for legislative and political success.

The roles and responsibilities of the minority leader are not well-defined. To a large extent, the functions of the minority leader are defined past tradition and custom. A minority leader from 1931 to 1939, Representative Bertrand Snell, R-Northward.Y., provided this "job description": "He is spokesman for his party and enunciates its policies. He is required to be alarm and vigilant in defense of the minority'due south rights. Information technology is his part and duty to criticize constructively the policies and programs of the majority, and to this finish employ parliamentary tactics and give shut attention to all proposed legislation."^[19]

Since Snell's clarification, other responsibilities have been added to the job. These duties involve an assortment of institutional and party functions. Before examining the institutional and party assignments of the minority leader, it is worth highlighting the historical origin of this position.

Origin of the post [edit]

To a large extent, the minority leader'southward position is a 20th-century innovation. Prior to this fourth dimension congressional parties were frequently relatively disorganized, so it was not always axiomatic who functioned as the opposition floor leader. Decades went by earlier anything like the modern two-political party congressional system emerged on Capitol Hill with official titles for those who were its official leaders. However, from the earliest days of Congress, various House members intermittently assumed the part of "opposition leader". Some scholars advise that Representative James Madison of Virginia informally functioned as the first "minority leader" because in the First Congress he led the opposition to Treasury Secretary Alexander Hamilton's fiscal policies.^[20]

During this early menstruation, it was more usual that neither major party grouping (Federalists and Democratic-Republicans) had an official leader. In 1813, for instance, a scholar recounts that the Federalist minority of 36 Members needed a committee of 13 "to represent a party comprising a distinct minority" and "to coordinate the actions of men who were already partisans in the same cause."^[21] In 1828, a strange observer of the Firm offered this perspective on the absence of formal party leadership on Capitol Colina:

I constitute in that location were admittedly no persons holding the stations of what are called, in England, Leaders, on either side of the House.... It is true, that sure members do take charge of administration questions, and certain others of opposition questions; but all this so obviously without concert among themselves, actual or tacit, that nothing can be conceived less systematic or more completely desultory, disjointed.^[22]

Internal party disunity compounded the difficulty of identifying lawmakers who might accept informally functioned as a minority leader. For instance, "vii of the fourteen speakership elections from 1834 through 1859 had at least xx different candidates in the field. Xxx-half dozen competed in 1839, ninety-7 in 1849, ninety-one in 1859, and 138 in 1855."^[23] With so many candidates competing for the speakership, it is not at all articulate that one of the defeated lawmakers then causeless the drapery of "minority leader." The Democratic minority from 1861 to 1875 was so completely disorganized that they did not "nominate a candidate for Speaker in 2 of these seven Congresses and nominated no human being more than once in the other five. The defeated candidates were not automatically looked to for leadership."^[24]

In the judgment of political scientist Randall Ripley, since 1883 "the candidate for Speaker nominated by the minority party has clearly been the Minority Leader."^[25] However, this assertion is discipline to dispute. On December 3, 1883, the House elected Democrat John G. Carlisle of Kentucky as Speaker. Republicans placed in nomination for the speakership J. Warren Keifer of Ohio, who was Speaker the previous Congress.^[26] Clearly, Keifer was not the Republicans' minority leader. He was a discredited leader in part because equally Speaker he arbitrarily handed out "option jobs to close relatives ... all at handsome salaries."^[27] Keifer received "the empty accolade of the minority nomination. But with it came a sting -- for while this naturally involves the floor leadership, he was deserted by his [partisan] associates and his career as a national effigy terminated ingloriously."^[28] Representative Thomas Reed, R-ME, who later became Speaker, causeless the de facto function of minority floor leader in Keifer'due south stead. "[A]lthough Keifer was the minority's candidate for Speaker, Reed became its best-selling leader, and always later on, so long equally he served in the House, remained the most conspicuous member of his party.^[29]

Some other scholar contends that the minority leader position emerged even before 1883. On the Democratic side, "there were serious conclave fights for the minority speakership nomination in 1871 and 1873," indicating that the "nomination carried with it some vestige of leadership."^[30] Further, when Republicans were in the minority, the party nominated for Speaker a series of prominent lawmakers, including ex-Speaker James Blaine of Maine in 1875, one-time Appropriations Chairman James A. Garfield of Ohio, in 1876, 1877, and 1879, and ex-Speaker Keifer in 1883. "Information technology is difficult to believe that Business firm partisans would identify a man in the speakership when in the majority, and nominate him for this part when in the minority, and non look to him for legislative guidance."^[30] This was not the case, according to some observers, with respect to ex-Speaker Keifer.

In cursory, there is disagreement amid historical analysts as to the verbal time period when the minority leadership emerged officially as a party position. Nonetheless, it seems condom to conclude that the position emerged during the latter part of the 19th century, a menstruation of strong party arrangement and professional politicians. This era was "marked by strong partisan attachments, resilient patronage-based party organizations, and...high levels of party voting in Congress."^[31] Plainly, these were conditions conducive to the establishment of a more highly differentiated Business firm leadership structure.^[32]

Minority party nominees for Speaker, 1865–1897 [edit]

While the Office of the House Historian but lists Minority Leaders starting in 1899,^[33] the minority'due south nominees for Speaker (at the showtime of each Congress) may be considered their party'south leaders before that time.

• 1865: James Brooks (D-NY)
• 1867: Samuel S. Marshall (D-IL)
• 1869: Michael C. Kerr (D-IN)
• 1871: George W. Morgan (D-OH)
• 1873: Fernando Woods (D-NY)
• 1875: James Gillespie Blaine (R-ME)
• 1877, 1879: James Abram Garfield (R-OH)
• 1881: Samuel Jackson Randall (D-PA)
• 1883: Joseph Warren Keifer (R-OH)
• 1885, 1887: Thomas Brackett Reed (R-ME)
• 1889: John Griffin Carlisle (D-KY)
• 1891, 1893: Thomas Brackett Reed (R-ME)
• 1895: Charles F. Well-baked (D-GA)
• 1897: Joseph Westward. Bailey (D-TX)^[34]

Trends [edit]

Two other points of historical interest merit brief mention. First, until the 61st Congress (1909–1910), "it was the custom to have the minority leader also serve as the ranking minority fellow member on the ii almost powerful committees, Rules and Means and Means."^[35] Today, the minority leader no longer serves on these committees; withal, they engage the minority members of the Rules Committee and influence the assignment of partisan colleagues to the Means and Means Committee.

Second, Democrats take always elevated their minority floor leader to the speakership upon reclaiming majority status. Republicans have not always followed this leadership succession pattern. In 1919, for instance, Republicans bypassed James R. Mann, R-IL, who had been minority leader for eight years, and elected Frederick Gillett, R-MA, to be Speaker. Mann "had angered many Republicans by objecting to their private bills on the floor;" also he was a protégé of autocratic Speaker Joseph Cannon, R-IL (1903–1911), and many Members "suspected that he would try to re-centralize power in his hands if elected Speaker."^[36] More recently, although Robert H. Michel was the Minority Leader in 1994 when the Republicans regained command of the Firm in the 1994 midterm elections, he had already announced his retirement and had piddling or no involvement in the campaign, including the Contract with America which was unveiled half dozen weeks before voting day.

In the instance when the Presidency and both Houses of Congress are controlled by one party, the Speaker unremarkably assumes a lower profile and defers to the President. For that situation the House Minority Leader tin can play the part of a de facto "leader of the opposition", oftentimes more so than the Senate Minority Leader, due to the more than partisan nature of the Business firm and the greater role of leadership. Minority Leaders who take played prominent roles in opposing the incumbent President have included Gerald Ford, Richard Gephardt, Nancy Pelosi, and John Boehner.

Institutional functions [edit]

The style and function of any minority leader is influenced by a variety of elements, including personality and contextual factors, such as the size and cohesion of the minority party, whether their party controls the White Firm, the full general political climate in the House, and the controversy that is sometimes associated with the legislative calendar. Despite the variability of these factors, there are a number of institutional obligations associated with this position. Many of these assignments or roles are spelled out in the House dominion book. Others have devolved upon the position in other ways. To be certain, the minority leader is provided with extra staff resources—beyond those accorded him or her as a Representative—to assist in carrying out diverse leadership functions. Worth emphasis is that there are limits on the institutional role of the minority leader, considering the majority party exercises disproportionate influence over the agenda, partisan ratios on committees, staff resource, administrative operations, and the 24-hour interval-to-day schedule and direction of flooring activities.

Under the rules of the Business firm, the minority leader has certain roles and responsibilities. They include the following:

Drug Testing. Under Rule I, clause nine, the "Speaker, in consultation with the Minority Leader, shall develop through an advisable entity of the House a system for drug testing in the Business firm."

Inspector Full general. Rule II, clause 6, states that the "Inspector General shall exist appointed for a Congress past the Speaker, the Bulk Leader, and the Minority Leader, acting jointly." This rule further states that the minority leader and other specified Firm leaders shall be notified of any financial irregularity involving the House and receive audit reports of the inspector general.

Questions of Privilege. Under Rule IX, clause two, a resolution "offered equally a question of privilege past the Majority Leader or the Minority Leader ... shall have precedence of all other questions except motions to adjourn." This rule further references the minority leader with respect to the partitioning of time for debate of these resolutions.

Oversight Plans. Under Rule X, clause 2, not later "than March 31 in the beginning session of a Congress, after consultation with the Speaker, the Bulk Leader, and the Minority Leader, the Committee on Government Reform shall study to the House the oversight plans" of the standing committees along with any recommendations it or the Business firm leaders have proposed to ensure the effective coordination of committees' oversight plans.

Committee on Standards of Official Conduct: Investigative Subcommittees. Rule 10, clause 5, stipulates: "At the beginning of a Congress, the Speaker or his designee and the Minority Leader or his designee each shall appoint 10 Members, Delegates, or Resident Commissioners from his respective political party who are not members of the Committee on Standards of Official Deport to exist available to serve on investigative subcommittees of that commission during that Congress."

Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence. "The Speaker and Minority Leader shall be ex officio members of the select committee merely shall have no vote in the select committee and may non be counted for purposes of determining a quorum." In add-on, each leader may designate a member of his leadership staff to assist him with his ex officio duties. (Rule X, clause 11).

Motility to Recommit with Instructions. Under Dominion Xiii, clause half dozen, the Rules Committee may not (except in certain specified circumstances) result a "rule" that prevents the minority leader or a designee from offering a move to recommit with instructions.

In addition, the minority leader has a number of other institutional functions. For instance, the minority leader is sometimes statutorily authorized to engage individuals to certain federal entities; they and the majority leader each name three Members to serve every bit Individual Calendar objectors; they are consulted with respect to reconvening the Firm per the usual formulation of conditional concurrent adjournment resolutions; they are a traditional fellow member of the House Part Building Commission; they are a fellow member of the Usa Capitol Preservation Commission; and they may, after consultation with the Speaker, convene an early on organizational party conclave or conference. Informally, the minority leader maintains ties with bulk party leaders to larn about the schedule and other House matters and forges agreements or understandings with them insofar every bit feasible.

Party functions [edit]

The minority leader has a number of formal and informal party responsibilities. Formally, the rules of each party specify certain roles and responsibilities for their leader. For case, under Autonomous rules for the 106th Congress, the minority leader may call meetings of the Democratic Caucus. They are a fellow member of the Democratic Congressional Campaign Committee; names the members of the Democratic Leadership Council; chairs the Policy Committee; and heads the Steering Committee. Examples of other assignments are making "recommendations to the Speaker on all Democratic Members who shall serve equally conferees" and nominating party members to the Committees on Rules and Business firm Administration. Republican rules place generally comparable functions for their top political party leader.

Informally, the minority leader has a wide range of party assignments. Lewis Deschler, the late House Parliamentarian (1928–1974), summarized the diverse duties of a political party's floor leader:

A party's flooring leader, in conjunction with other party leaders, plays an influential role in the formulation of political party policy and programs. They are instrumental in guiding legislation favored past his party through the House, or in resisting those programs of the other party that are considered undesirable by his ain political party. They are instrumental in devising and implementing his party'due south strategy on the floor with respect to promoting or opposing legislation. They are kept constantly informed as to the status of legislative business and as to the sentiment of his party respecting particular legislation under consideration. Such information is derived in role from the floor leader's contacts with his party's members serving on Business firm committees, and with the members of the political party'southward whip organization.^[37]

These and several other party roles merit farther mention because they influence significantly the leader'south overarching objective: retake bulk control of the Business firm. "I want to get [my] members elected and win more seats," said Minority Leader Richard Gephardt, D-MO. "That's what [my partisan colleagues] want to do, and that'southward what they want me to exercise."^[38]

Five activities illustrate how minority leaders seek to reach this primary goal.

Provide Entrada Aid. Minority leaders are typically energetic and aggressive campaigners for partisan incumbents and challengers. At that place is hardly whatever major aspect of candidature that does not engage their attention. For example, they assist in recruiting qualified candidates; they establish "leadership PACs" to raise and distribute funds to Business firm candidates of their political party; they endeavor to persuade partisan colleagues non to retire or run for other offices and then equally to hold downwards the number of open seats the party would demand to defend; they coordinate their campaign activities with congressional and national political party campaign committees; they encourage outside groups to back their candidates; they travel around the country to speak on behalf of party candidates; and they encourage incumbent colleagues to make pregnant fiscal contributions to the party's entrada committee. "The corporeality of time that [Minority Leader] Gephardt is putting in to assistance the DCCC [Democratic Congressional Campaign Committee] is unheard of," noted a Democratic lobbyist."No DCCC chairman has ever had that kind of support."^[39]

Devise Minority Party Strategies. The minority leader, in consultation with other party colleagues, has a range of strategic options that they can utilize to advance minority party objectives. The options selected depend on a wide range of circumstances, such as the visibility or significance of the result and the degree of cohesion within the majority party. For instance, a majority party riven by internal dissension, as occurred during the early 1900s when Progressive and "regular" Republicans were at loggerheads, may provide the minority leader with greater opportunities to achieve their priorities than if the majority political party exhibited high degrees of political party cohesion. Among the variable strategies bachelor to the minority political party, which can vary from nib to bill and be used in combination or at dissimilar stages of the lawmaking process, are the post-obit:

Cooperation. The minority party supports and cooperates with the majority party in building winning coalitions on the floor.

Inconsequential Opposition. The minority party offers opposition, only it is of marginal significance, typically because the minority is then minor.

Withdrawal. The minority party chooses not to take a position on an issue, perhaps because of intraparty divisions.

Innovation. The minority party develops alternatives and agendas of its own and attempts to construct winning coalitions on their behalf.

Partisan Opposition. The minority political party offers stiff opposition to bulk party initiatives merely does not counter with policy alternatives of their own.

Effective Opposition. The minority political party opposes initiatives of the majority party and offers its own proposals as substitutes.

Participation. The minority party is in the position of having to consider the views and proposals of their president and to assess their bulk-edifice part with respect to his priorities.^[a]

A look at one minority leadership strategy—partisan opposition—may suggest why it might exist employed in specific circumstances. The purposes of obstruction are several, such as frustrating the majority party'southward ability to govern or attracting press and media attention to the alleged ineffectiveness of the majority party. "We know how to delay," remarked Minority Leader Gephardt^[40] Dilatory motions to curb, appeals of the presiding officer's ruling, or numerous requests for roll telephone call votes are standard fourth dimension-consuming parliamentary tactics. By stalling action on the bulk political party's agenda, the minority leader may be able to launch a campaign against a "do-nothing Congress" and convince enough voters to put his political party dorsum in charge of the House. To be certain, the minority leader recognizes that "going negative" carries risks and may non exist a winning strategy if his political party fails to offer policy alternatives that entreatment to wide segments of the general public.

Promote and Publicize the Party'due south Agenda. An important aim of the minority leader is to develop an electorally attractive agenda of ideas and proposals that unites their ain Business firm members and that energizes and appeals to core electoral supporters as well as independents and swing voters. Despite the minority leader's restricted ability to prepare the House's agenda, there are nevertheless opportunities for him to raise minority priorities. For example, the minority leader may apply, or threaten to use, belch petitions to try and bring minority priorities to the floor.^[41] If they are able to concenter the required 218 signatures on a discharge petition by attracting bulk party supporters, they can force minority initiatives to the flooring over the opposition of the majority leadership. As a GOP minority leader in one case said, the challenges he confronted are to "keep our people together, and to wait for votes on the other side."^[42]

Minority leaders may engage in numerous activities to publicize their party'south priorities and to criticize the opposition'due south. For instance, to keep their party colleagues "on message," they insure that partisan colleagues are sent packets of suggested press releases or "talking points" for constituent meetings in their districts; they assistance to organize "town meetings" in Members' districts around the state to publicize the party'due south agenda or a specific priority, such as health intendance or education; they sponsor party "retreats" to talk over issues and appraise the party's public image; they create "theme teams" to craft party letters that might be raised during the one-minute, morning hr, or special order period in the House; they conduct surveys of party colleagues to discern their policy preferences; they establish websites that highlight and distribute political party images and issues to users; and they organize task forces or outcome teams to codify party programs and to develop strategies for communicating these programs to the public.

Business firm minority leaders also hold joint news conferences and consult with their counterparts in the Senate—and with the president if their party controls the White Firm. The overall objectives are to develop a coordinated communications strategy, to share ideas and information, and to nowadays a united front on issues. Minority leaders besides make flooring speeches and shut debate on major issues before the Business firm; they evangelize addresses in diverse forums beyond the country, and they write books or manufactures that highlight minority party goals and achievements. They must as well exist prepared "to argue on the floor, advertising lib, no notes, on a moment's notice," remarked Minority Leader Michel.^[43] In brief, minority leaders are fundamental strategists in developing and promoting the party'south agenda and in outlining ways to neutralize the opposition'southward arguments and proposals.

Confer With the White House. If their party controls the White Firm, the minority leader confers regularly with the President and his aides about bug before Congress, the Administration's calendar, and political events mostly. Strategically, the part of the minority leader will vary depending on whether the President is of the aforementioned party or the other party. In full general, minority leaders will often work to advance the goals and aspirations of their political party's President in Congress. When Robert Michel, R-IL, was minority leader (1981–1995), he typically functioned as the "point homo" for Republican presidents.^[44] President Ronald Reagan'south 1981 policy successes in the Autonomous-controlled Business firm was due in no modest measure to Minority Leader Michel's effectiveness in wooing so-called "Reagan Democrats" to support, for instance, the Administration's landmark budget reconciliation beak. There are occasions, of form, when minority leaders will fault the legislative initiatives of their President. On an administration proposal that could adversely affect his district, Michel stated that he might "abdicate my leadership role [on this effect] since I can't harmonize my own views with the administration's."^[45] Minority Leader Gephardt, as some other instance, has publicly opposed a number of President Clinton's legislative initiatives from "fast track" trade authority to various budget issues.^[46]

When the White House is controlled past the House majority party, then the House minority leader assumes a larger role in formulating alternatives to executive branch initiatives and in interim equally a national spokesperson for their political party. "Every bit Minority Leader during [President Lyndon Johnson's] Democratic administration, my responsibility has been to propose Republican alternatives," said Minority Leader Gerald Ford, R-MI.^[47] Greatly outnumbered in the Firm, Minority Leader Ford devised a political strategy that allowed Republicans to offer their alternatives in a manner that provided them political protection. Every bit Ford explained:

"We used a technique of laying our program out in general contend," he said. When we got to the amendment phase, nosotros would offer our program equally a substitute for the Johnson proposal. If we lost in the Committee of the Whole, and then we would ordinarily offering it as a motility to recommit and go a vote on that. And if we lost on the move to recommit, our Republican members had a selection: They could vote against the Johnson plan and say we did our all-time to come up with a better alternative. Or they could vote for it and make the aforementioned argument. Unremarkably nosotros lost; just when you're just 140 out of 435, you don't look to win many.^[48]

Ford besides teamed with Senate Minority Leader Everett Dirksen, R-IL, to act as national spokesmen for their party. They met with the press every Thursday following the weekly articulation leadership meeting. Ford'southward predecessor every bit minority leader, Charles Halleck, R-IN, probably received more visibility in this role, considering the press and media dubbed information technology the "Ev and Charlie Evidence." In fact, the "Republican National Committee budgeted $thirty,000 annually to produce the weekly news conference."^[49]

Foster Party Harmony. Minority status, past itself, is often an important inducement for minority party members to stay together, to accommodate dissimilar interests, and to submerge intraparty factional disagreements. To agree a diverse membership together often requires extensive consultations and discussions with rank-and-file Members and with dissimilar factional groupings. As Minority Leader Gephardt said:

We have weekly caucus meetings. We have daily leadership meetings. Nosotros accept weekly ranking Fellow member meetings. We have party effectiveness meetings. There's a lot more communication. I believe leadership is bottom up, not top downwards. I retrieve you have to build policy and strategy and vision from the lesser upward, and involve people in figuring out what that is.^[fifty]

Gephardt added that "inclusion and empowerment of the people on the line take to be done to go the best performance" from the minority party.^[51] Other techniques for fostering party harmony include the appointment of task forces equanimous of partisan colleagues with conflicting views to reach consensus on issues; the creation of new leadership positions equally a way to accomplish out and involve a greater diversity of partisans in the leadership construction; and daily meetings in the Leader's office (or at breakfast, tiffin, or dinner) to lay out floor strategy or political objectives for the minority party.

Party whips and assistant party leaders [edit]

Whips [edit]

A whip manages their party'southward legislative program on the House floor. The whip keeps track of all legislation and ensures that all party members are nowadays when of import measures are to be voted upon.

The Bulk Whip is an elected member of the majority party who assists the Speaker of the Business firm and the bulk leader to coordinate ideas on, and garner back up for, proposed legislation. They are reckoned as the third-ranking fellow member of his or her political party behind the Speaker and the Majority Leader.

The Minority Whip is a member of the minority political party who assists the minority leader in coordinating the political party caucus in its responses to legislation and other matters. They are reckoned as the second about powerful member of his or her political party, behind the minority leader. However, the U.S. House of Representatives does not use the term "minority whip," instead calling the position "Republican Whip" or "Autonomous Whip" depending on the minority party.

The Master Deputy Whip is the chief assistant to the whip, who is the main vote counter for their party. The current chief deputy minority whip is Republican Drew Ferguson. Within the House Republican Briefing, the primary deputy whip is the highest appointed position and often a launching pad for future positions in the House Leadership. Cantor and McCarthy, for instance, served every bit chief deputy Republican whips before ascending to the majority leader'south mail service. The House Democratic Briefing has multiple master deputy whips, led by a Senior Chief Deputy Whip, which is the highest appointed position within the House Autonomous Caucus. John Lewis held this post from 1991 until his death in 2020. January Schakowsky held the position of senior chief deputy majority whip forth with Lewis since 2019, previously holding a position as chief deputy whip since 2005. Between 1955 and 1973, the Democrats simply had the title Deputy Whip.^[52]

List of Republican Chief Deputy Whips

• 1981–1983: David F. Emery (Minority)
• 1983–1987: Tom Loeffler (Minority)
• 1987–1989: Edward Rell Madigan (Minority)
• 1989–1993: Steve Gunderson and Robert Smith Walker (Minority)
• 1993–1995: Robert Smith Walker (Minority)
• 1995–1999: Dennis Hastert (Bulk)
• 1999–2003: Roy Blunt (Majority)
• 2003–2009: Eric Cantor (Majority, 2003–2007; Minority, 2007–2009)
• 2009–2011: Kevin McCarthy (Minority)
• 2011–2014: Peter Roskam (Bulk)
• 2014–2019: Patrick McHenry (Majority)
• 2019–present: Drew Ferguson (Minority)

Listing of Democratic Chief Deputy Whips

• 1955–1962: Unhurt Boggs (Majority)
• 1962–1971: Tip O'Neill (Majority)
• 1971–1973: John Brademas, John J. McFall (Bulk)
• 1973–1977: John Brademas (Majority)
• 1977–1981: Dan Rostenkowski (Bulk)
• 1981–1987: Bill Alexander (Majority)
• 1987–1991: David Bonior (Majority)
• 1991–1993: Butler Derrick, Barbara Kennelly, John Lewis (Majority)
• 1993–1995: Butler Derrick, Barbara Kennelly, John Lewis, Bill Richardson (Bulk)
• 1995–1997: Rosa DeLauro, John Lewis, Bill Richardson (Minority)
• 1997–1999: Rosa DeLauro, Chet Edwards, John Lewis, Bob Menendez (Minority)
• 1999–2002: Chet Edwards, John Lewis, Ed Pastor, Maxine Waters (Minority)
• 2002–2003: John Lewis, Ed Pastor, Max Sandlin, Maxine Waters (Minority)
• 2003–2005: John Lewis (Senior Chief Deputy Whip), Joe Crowley, Baron Hill, Ron Kind, Ed Pastor, Max Sandlin, Jan Schakowsky, Maxine Waters (Minority)
• 2005–2007: John Lewis (Senior Chief Deputy Whip), Joe Crowley, Diana DeGette, Ron Kind, Ed Pastor, Jan Schakowsky, John Tanner, Maxine Waters (Minority)
• 2007–2011: John Lewis (Senior Chief Deputy Whip), G. One thousand. Butterfield, Joe Crowley, Diana DeGette, Ed Pastor, Jan Schakowsky, Debbie Wasserman Schultz, John Tanner, Maxine Waters (Majority)
• 2011–2013: John Lewis (Senior Chief Deputy Whip), One thousand. Grand. Butterfield, Joe Crowley, Diana DeGette, Jim Matheson, Ed Pastor, Jan Schakowsky, Debbie Wasserman Schultz, Maxine Waters, Peter Welch (Minority)
• 2013–2015: John Lewis (Senior Chief Deputy Whip), G. K. Butterfield, Diana DeGette, Keith Ellison, Ben Ray Lujan, Jim Matheson, Jan Schakowsky, Debbie Wasserman Schultz, Terri Sewell, Peter Welch (Minority)
• 2015–2019: John Lewis (Senior Chief Deputy Whip), G. 1000. Butterfield, Joaquin Castro, Diana DeGette, Keith Ellison, January Schakowsky, Debbie Wasserman Schultz, Terri Sewell, Kyrsten Sinema, Peter Welch (Minority)
• 2019–present: Cedric Richmond (until Jan xv, 2021) (Assistant to the Majority Whip), John Lewis (until July 17, 2020), Jan Schakowsky (Senior Master Deputy Whips), Pete Aguilar, G. K. Butterfield, Henry Cuellar, Sheila Jackson Lee, Dan Kildee, Debbie Wasserman Schultz, Terri Sewell, Peter Welch (Majority)

Assistant party leaders [edit]

The position of Banana Autonomous Leader was established past Nancy Pelosi on Jan 3, 2011 and filled by Jim Clyburn to avoid a boxing for whip between then-Majority Leader Steny Hoyer and so-Bulk Whip Jim Clyburn. The title has undergone several proper noun changes, with the title currently known as the titular "Banana Speaker of the House of Representatives"; it is said to replace the Assistant to the Leader postal service commencement established in 1999; and previously held by Chris Van Hollen. There is currently no Republican equivalent in the U.Due south. House of Representatives.

List of Firm Democratic Assistants to the Leader

• 1999–2003: Rosa DeLauro
• 2003–2007: John Spratt
• 2007–2009: Xavier Becerra
• 2009–2011: Chris Van Hollen

List of House Assistant Democratic Leaders

• 2011–2019: Jim Clyburn

List of Assistant Speakers of the House of Representatives

• 2019–2021: Ben Ray Luján
• 2021–present: Katherine Clark

List of party leaders and whips [edit]

The Speaker and President are included for historical and comparative reference.

Cong ress	Years	Autonomous whip	Democratic leader	Speaker	Republican leader	Republican whip		U.Southward. President
56th	1899–1901	Oscar Underwood[b] (Alabama)	James D. Richardson (Tennessee)	— GOP Speaker – David B. Henderson (Iowa)	— Bulk — Sereno E. Payne (New York)	— Majority — James Albertus Tawney (Minnesota)		William McKinley (Republican)
57th	1901–1903	James Tilghman Lloyd (Missouri)						Theodore Roosevelt (Republican)
58th	1903–1905		John Sharp Williams (Mississippi)	— GOP Speaker – Joe Cannon (Illinois)
59th	1905–1907					— Majority — James East. Watson (Indiana)
60th	1907–1908
	1908–1909
61st	1909–1911	None	Champ Clark (Missouri)			— Majority — John Due west. Dwight (New York)		William Howard Taft (Republican)
62nd	1911–1913	None	— Majority — Oscar Underwood (Alabama)	— Dem Speaker – Champ Clark (Missouri)	James Mann (Illinois)	John W. Dwight (New York)
63rd	1913–1915	— Majority — Thomas M. Bell (Georgia)				Charles H. Burke (South Dakota)		Woodrow Wilson (Democratic)
64th	1915–1917	None	— Majority — Claude Kitchin (North Carolina)			Charles M. Hamilton (New York)
65th	1917–1919
66th	1919–1921	None	Champ Clark (Missouri)	— GOP Speaker – Frederick H. Gillett (Massachusetts)	— Majority — Frank W. Mondell (Wyoming)	— Bulk — Harold Knutson (Minnesota)
67th	1921–1923	William A. Oldfield (Arkansas)	Claude Kitchin (N Carolina)					Warren G. Harding (Republican)
68th	1923–1925		Finis J. Garrett (Tennessee)		— Bulk — Nicholas Longworth (Ohio)	— Bulk — Albert H. Vestal (Indiana)		Calvin Coolidge (Republican)
69th	1925–1927			— GOP Speaker – Nicholas Longworth (Ohio)	— Majority — John Q. Tilson (Connecticut)
70th	1927–1929
71st	1929–1931	John McDuffie (Alabama)	John Nance Garner (Texas)					Herbert Hoover (Republican)
72nd	1931–1933	— Majority — John McDuffie (Alabama)	— Majority — Henry T. Rainey (Illinois)	— Dem Speaker – John Nance Garner (Texas)	Bertrand Snell (New York)	Carl G. Bachmann (W Virginia)
73rd	1933–1935	— Majority — Arthur H. Greenwood (Indiana)	— Majority — Jo Byrns (Tennessee)	— Dem Speaker – Henry T. Rainey (Illinois)		Harry L. Englebright (California)		Franklin D. Roosevelt (Democratic)
74th	1935–1936	— Majority — Patrick J. Boland (Pennsylvania)	— Majority — William Bankhead (Alabama)	— Dem Speaker – Jo Byrns (Tennessee)
	1936–1937		— Bulk — Sam Rayburn (Texas)	— Dem Speaker – William B. Bankhead (Alabama)
75th	1937–1939
76th	1939–1940				Joseph Due west. Martin Jr. (Massachusetts)
	1940–1941		— Bulk — John West. McCormack (Massachusetts)	— Dem Speaker – Sam Rayburn (Texas)
77th	1941–1942
	1942–1943	— Majority — Robert Ramspeck (Georgia)
78th	1943–1943
	1943–1945					Leslie Arends (Illinois)
79th	1945–1945							Harry S. Truman (Autonomous)
	1946–1947	— Bulk — John Sparkman (Alabama)
80th	1947–1949	John W. McCormack (Massachusetts)	Sam Rayburn (Texas)	— GOP Speaker – Joseph W. Martin Jr. (Massachusetts)	— Majority — Charles Halleck (Indiana)	— Bulk — Leslie Arends (Illinois)
81st	1949–1951	— Majority — Percy Priest (Tennessee)	— Majority — John W. McCormack (Massachusetts)	— Dem Speaker – Sam Rayburn (Texas)	Joseph W. Martin Jr. (Massachusetts)	Leslie Arends (Illinois)
82nd	1951–1953
83rd	1953–1955	John Westward. McCormack (Massachusetts)	Sam Rayburn (Texas)	— GOP Speaker – Joseph W. Martin Jr. (Massachusetts)	— Majority — Charles A. Halleck (Indiana)	— Majority — Leslie C. Arends (Illinois)		Dwight D. Eisenhower (Republican)
84th	1955–1957	— Majority — Carl Albert (Oklahoma)	— Majority — John W. McCormack (Massachusetts)	— Dem Speaker – Sam Rayburn (Texas)	Joseph Due west. Martin Jr. (Massachusetts)	Leslie C. Arends (Illinois)
85th	1957–1959
86th	1959–1961				Charles Halleck (Indiana)
87th	1961–1962							John F. Kennedy (Democratic)
	1962–1963	— Majority — Unhurt Boggs (Louisiana)	— Majority — Carl Albert (Oklahoma)	— Dem Speaker – John W. McCormack (Massachusetts)
88th	1963–1965							Lyndon B. Johnson (Democratic)
89th	1965–1967				Gerald Ford (Michigan)
90th	1967–1969
91st	1969–1971							Richard Nixon (Republican)
92nd	1971–1973	— Majority — Tip O'Neill (Massachusetts)	— Majority — Hale Boggs (Louisiana)	— Dem Speaker – Carl Albert (Oklahoma)
93rd	1973–1973	— Majority — John J. McFall (California)	— Majority — Tip O'Neill (Massachusetts)
	1973–1975				John Rhodes (Arizona)
94th	1975–1977					Bob Michel (Illinois)		Gerald Ford (Republican)
95th	1977–1979	— Majority — John Brademas (Indiana)	— Majority — Jim Wright (Texas)	— Dem Speaker – Tip O'Neill (Massachusetts)				Jimmy Carter (Autonomous)
96th	1979–1981
97th	1981–1983	— Majority — Tom Foley (Washington)			Bob Michel (Illinois)	Trent Lott (Mississippi)		Ronald Reagan (Republican)
98th	1983–1985
99th	1985–1987
100th	1987–1989	— Bulk — Tony Coelho (California)	— Majority — Tom Foley (Washington)	— Dem Speaker – Jim Wright (Texas)
101st	1989–1989					Dick Cheney (Wyoming)		George H.West. Bush (Republican)
	1989–1991	— Majority — William H. Grayness III (Pennsylvania)	— Majority — Dick Gephardt (Missouri)	— Dem Speaker – Tom Foley (Washington)		Newt Gingrich (Georgia)
102nd	1991–1991
	1991–1993	— Majority — David Bonior (Michigan)
103rd	1993–1995							Bill Clinton (Democratic)
104th	1995–1997	David Bonior (Michigan)	Dick Gephardt (Missouri)	— GOP Speaker – Newt Gingrich (Georgia)	— Bulk — Dick Armey (Texas)	— Majority — Tom DeLay (Texas)
105th	1997–1999
106th	1999–2001			— GOP Speaker – Dennis Hastert (Illinois)
107th	2001–2002							George Westward. Bush (Republican)
	2002–2003	Nancy Pelosi (California)
108th	2003–2005	Steny Hoyer (Maryland)	Nancy Pelosi (California)		— Bulk — Tom DeLay (Texas)	— Majority — Roy Blunt (Missouri)
109th	2005–2005
	2005–2006				— Majority — Roy Blunt (Missouri, Interim)
	2006–2007				— Bulk — John Boehner (Ohio)
110th	2007–2009	— Majority — Jim Clyburn (South Carolina)	— Majority — Steny Hoyer (Maryland)	— Dem Speaker – Nancy Pelosi (California)	John Boehner (Ohio)	Roy Edgeless (Missouri)
111th	2009–2011					Eric Cantor (Virginia)	Barack Obama (Democratic)
112th	2011–2013	Steny Hoyer (Maryland)	Nancy Pelosi (California)	— GOP Speaker – John Boehner (Ohio)	— Majority — Eric Cantor (Virginia)	— Majority — Kevin McCarthy (California)
113th	2013–2014
	2014–2015				— Majority — Kevin McCarthy (California)	— Bulk — Steve Scalise (Louisiana)
114th	2015–2015
	2015–2017			— GOP Speaker – Paul Ryan (Wisconsin)
115th	2017–2019						Donald Trump (Republican)
116th	2019–2021	— Bulk — Jim Clyburn (S Carolina)	— Majority — Steny Hoyer (Maryland)	— Dem Speaker – Nancy Pelosi (California)	Kevin McCarthy (California)	Steve Scalise (Louisiana)
117th	2021–present						Joe Biden (Autonomous)
Cong ress	Years	Democratic whip	Democratic leader	Speaker	Republican leader	Republican whip	U.S. President

Encounter besides [edit]

• Party leaders of the The states Senate
• Divided government in the U.s.

Notes [edit]

1. ^ These strategic options have been modified to a degree and come from Jones, The Minority Party in Congress, p. 20.
2. ^ Sources differ on the dates that Underwood served equally Whip:
   • Ane indicates that he served from 1899 to 1901. See "Democratic Whips". Office of the Clerk, U.S. Business firm of Representatives. Archived from the original on October xi, 2011. Retrieved April 21, 2010.
   • Another indicates that he served simply during 1901. See Heitshusen, Valerie (February 27, 2007). "Party Leaders in Congress, 1789-2007: Vital Statistics" (PDF). Congressional Research Service: CRS–xi. Archived from the original (PDF) on May 27, 2010. Retrieved April 21, 2010.
   • Co-ordinate to a gimmicky newspaper commodity, "Representative Underwood has been voluntarily filling that position [Democratic whip] since Congress convened" (December 4, 1899). See "Phone call for a Democratic Conclave". The New York Times. January 9, 1900. p. 8.

References [edit]

•  This commodity incorporates public domain cloth from the Congressional Research Service document: Mark J. Oleszek. "The Role of the House Minority Leader: An Overview" (PDF).

1. ^ ^{a b} "N.Y. Dem might vote for Boehner". Pol. Nov 23, 2010. Retrieved June 7, 2011.
2. ^ "U.S. Senate: Leadership". www.senate.gov . Retrieved May 16, 2022.
3. ^ "Majority leader, vus ist?". JTA. January 5, 2011. Archived from the original on March 28, 2012. Retrieved January 4, 2011.
4. ^ Heitshusen, Valerie (Apr 24, 2017). Party Leaders in the House: Election, Duties, and Responsibilities (PDF) (Written report). Congressional Research Service. pp. 2–3. RS20881. Retrieved July 24, 2017.
5. ^ Berg-Andersson, Richard E. (June seven, 2001). "A Brief History of Congressional Leadership". The Green Papers (self-published website & weblog) . Retrieved January 5, 2006.
6. ^ Heitshusen, Valerie (September 4, 2019). Party Leaders in the U.s.a. Congress, 1789-2019 (PDF) (Report). Congressional Research Service. p. 2. Retrieved April 16, 2022.
7. ^ Heitshusen, Valerie (September 4, 2019). Party Leaders in the United States Congress, 1789-2019 (PDF) (Report). Congressional Research Service. p. i. Retrieved April 16, 2022.
8. ^ "Majority Leaders of the Business firm (1899 to present)". U.S. Business firm History, Art & Athenaeum. U.S. House of Representatives. Retrieved June 10, 2014.
9. ^ "All-time & Worst of Congress - News & Features". washingtonian.com. September 2004. Retrieved June 7, 2011.
10. ^ "Pelosi wants to remain leader". Miami Herald. ^{[ expressionless link ]}
11. ^ Memoli, Michael A. (November 17, 2010). "Nancy Pelosi is House minority leader". Los Angeles Times.
12. ^ "Eric Cantor will exit House leadership post afterwards stunning loss". CNN. June 11, 2014.
13. ^ Zeleny, Jeff; Parkinson, John (June 11, 2014). "Eric Cantor Stepping Downward equally House Bulk Leader". ABC News.
14. ^ Kim, Clare (June 10, 2014). "Eric Cantor loses GOP primary to tea party challenger Dave Brat". MSNBC. Retrieved June 11, 2014.
15. ^ "Cantor'southward Loss: A Stunning Upset". The Atlantic. Politico.com. Retrieved June x, 2014.
16. ^ Ostermeier, Eric (June 10, 2014). "Eric Cantor 1st Business firm Majority Leader to Lose Renomination Bid in History". Smart Politics. Archived from the original on June 12, 2014. Retrieved June 11, 2014.
17. ^ Costa, Robert (June 10, 2014). "Eric Cantor Succumbs to Tea Political party Challenger Tuesday". The Washington Mail service.
18. ^ "Eric Cantor Tells Virginia Paper He'll Resign in August". NBC News. August one, 2014.
19. ^ Quoted in Riddick, Floyd M. (1941). Congressional Procedure. Boston: Chapman and Grimes. p. 346.
20. ^ Meet Nelson, Garrison (Fall 1976). "Leadership Position-Property in the United States House of Representatives". Capitol Studies (4): 17.
21. ^ Immature, James Sterling (1966). The Washington Customs, 1800-1828. New York: Harcourt Brace. pp. 135–136.
22. ^ Young, James Sterling (1966). The Washington Community, 1800-1828. New York: Harcourt Caryatid. p. 137.
23. ^ Nelson, Garrison (Fall 1976). "Leadership Position-Property in the United States House of Representatives". Capitol Studies (four): 18.
24. ^ Ripley, Randall B. (1967). Party Leaders in the House of Representatives. Washington, D.C.: The Brookings Institution. pp. 28n.
25. ^ Ripley, Randall B. (1967). Party Leaders in the House of Representatives. Washington, D.C.: The Brookings Institution. p. 28.
26. ^ 1883Congressional Record, Vol. 29, Page 4-v (December 3, 1883)
27. ^ McNeil, Neil (1963). Forge of Democracy: The House of Representatives. New York: David McKay Co. p. 70.
28. ^ Herbert Bruce Fuller, The Speakers of the House (Boston: Little, Brown, and Co., 1909), p. 208.
29. ^ DeAlva Stanwood Alexander, History and Process of the House of Representatives (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1916), p. 131.
30. ^ ^{a b} Nelson, Garrison (Fall 1976). "Leadership Position-Holding in the United states House of Representatives". Capitol Studies (4): 19.
31. ^ Randall Strahan, "Thomas Brackett Reed and the Rise of Party Regime," in Roger Davidson, et al., eds., Masters of the House (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1998), p. 36.
32. ^ See Polsby, Nelson (September 1968). "The Institutionalization of the U.Southward. House of Representatives". American Political Scientific discipline Review. pp. 144–168.
33. ^ "Minority Leaders of the House (1899 to nowadays) | US House of Representatives: History, Fine art & Archives". history.house.gov . Retrieved May xx, 2020.
34. ^ Sources: Fighting for the Speakership: The Firm and the Ascension of Party Government, past Jeffery A. Jenkins and Charles Haines Stewart and Annal of OurCampaigns.com
35. ^ Charles O. Jones, The Minority Party in Congress (Boston: Little, Brown and Co., 1970), p. 31.
36. ^ Ripley, Randall B. (1967). Party Leaders in the House of Representatives. Washington, D.C.: The Brookings Establishment. pp. 98–99.
37. ^ Lewis Deschler, Deschler's Precedents of the The states House of Representatives, Vol. 1 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Authorities Printing Office, 1977), pp. 211-212.
38. ^ Guy Gugliotta, "For Minority Leader, A Matter of Consensus; Research Vote Tests Gephardt'southward Skills," The Washington Post, October 8, 1998, pp. A18.
39. ^ Barnes, James A.; Stone, Peter H. (Feb 26, 2000). "A Rich Harvest on the Colina". National Periodical. p. 640.
40. ^ Babson, Jennifer (July 15, 1995). "Democrats Refine the Tactics of Minority Party Power". Congressional Quarterly Weekly Report. Congressional Quarterly. p. 2037.
41. ^ Wallison, Ethan (May 17, 1999). "Gephardt Plans Petition Strategy". Scroll Call. p. 1.
42. ^ Arieff, Irwin (Feb 28, 1981). "Inside Congress". Congressional Quarterly Weekly Study. Congressional Quarterly. p. 379.
43. ^ 1989Congressional Record, Vol. 135, Page E3000 (September 12, 1989)
44. ^ William F. Connelly, Jr. and John J. Pitney, Jr., Congress' Permanent Minority? Republicans in the U.S. Business firm (Lanham, Maryland: Littlefield Adams, 1994), p. 15.
45. ^ Dorothy Collin, "Michel Plays to Peoria -- and U.S.," Chicago Tribune, August 16, 1982, p. 2.
46. ^ See Jim Vande Hei, "White House Sidesteps Gephardt's Leadership," Coil Call, July 7, 1997, p. 1.
47. ^ James M. Cannon, "Minority Leaders of the Usa Firm of Representatives, 1965-1973," in Masters of the House, p. 275.
48. ^ James M. Cannon, "Minority Leaders of the United States House of Representatives, 1965-1973," in Masters of the House, p. 271.
49. ^ Burdette Loomis, "The Consummate Minority Leader: Everette Chiliad. Dirksen," in Richard Bakery and Roger Davidson, eds., First Amongst Equals (Washington, D.C.: CQ Printing, 1991), p. 250.
50. ^ Eliza Newlin Carney, "Don't Count Us Out," National Periodical, April 29, 1995, p. 1024.
51. ^ Davidson, et al., Masters of the House, pp.323.
52. ^ Sinclair, Barbara (June 26, 1998). Legislators, Leaders, and Lawmaking: The U.Southward. Business firm of Representatives in the Postreform Era. JHU Printing. ISBN9780801857126 . Retrieved May twenty, 2020 – via Google Books.

External links [edit]

• Office of the Majority Leader (Democratic Leader)
• Office of the Majority Whip (Democratic Whip)

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Party_leaders_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives

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